Jenner used children to test a theory — based on folklore, not scientific evidence — that cowpox,

J. Marion Sims performed multiple experimental surgeries on enslaved African women without the benefit of anesthesia. After

Dr. Armauer Hensen, a Norweigian microbiologist who discovered the bacterium that causes leprosy, having failed to grow

Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, microbiologist who laid the foundation for vaccines. After testing the rabies vaccine

Arthur Wentworth, MD, a pediatrician trained at Harvard Medical School, performed spinal taps on 29 babies and

Giuseppe Sanarelli, MD, Italian bacteriologist injects the bacillus causing yellow fever five patients without their consent. Three

Yellow Fever Dormitory Yellow fever epidemics struck the United States repeatedly in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Biomedical research in Germany was considered the most advanced in the world — both in its development

The Carnegie Institution established the Station for Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor, under the directorship of

Richard Strong, MD, a professor of tropical medicine at Harvard, conducted cholera experiments on 24 prisoners in

Luther Emmett Holt, a professor of children’s disease at Columbia University, was accused of conducting 1,000 tuberculin

Hideyo Noguchi, MD, of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research injected a syphilis preparation into 146 children

In Pennsylvania, 146 children were inoculated with syphilis in several hospitals (Sierra, 2011); and in Philadelphia’s St.

Dr. Leo Stanley, chief surgeon at San Quentin Prison for forty years, performed a wide variety of